Glucagon
The body's own hormone for raising blood glucose, approved as an emergency treatment for severe hypoglycaemia. Well characterised and unambiguously effective for that use.
Metabolic & Weight
Insulin
The most thoroughly studied hormone in medicine and an essential therapy in type 1 diabetes. Also the single most dangerous compound on this list when used without medical supervision.
Overview
Insulin is the signal that tells cells to take glucose out of the blood and store it. It pushes glucose into muscle and fat, tells the liver to stop producing more, and promotes storage of fat and protein. Without it, blood sugar rises without limit and the body starts breaking down fat for fuel, producing ketoacids — which is fatal if untreated. Too much of it does the opposite and drops blood glucose to a level the brain cannot function at.
A 51-amino-acid two-chain peptide linked by disulfide bridges, produced from proinsulin in pancreatic beta cells. Binds the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase, autophosphorylation recruiting IRS-1/2 and activating PI3K/Akt, driving GLUT4 translocation in muscle and adipose, glycogen synthesis, lipogenesis and suppression of hepatic gluconeogenesis, plus MAPK-mediated mitogenic signalling. Analogues modify the sequence or add acyl chains to alter hexamer dissociation kinetics: rapid-acting (lispro, aspart, glulisine) and basal (glargine, detemir, degludec) formulations differ almost entirely in absorption profile rather than receptor pharmacology.
Research areas
Type 1 diabetesType 2 diabetesGlucose metabolism
Dosing reported in the literature
Every protocol below is reproduced from a published study or approved labelling, with its source named. These are records of what was studied — not recommendations, and not a suggestion that any of them is appropriate for any person.
| Protocol as reported | Source |
|---|---|
| Basal-bolus regimens individualised to weight, carbohydrate intake and glucose monitoringThere is no generic dose. Every regimen is titrated against measured glucose. | ADA Standards of Care |
| Intensive glycaemic control versus conventional therapy over a mean 6.5 years | DCCT, New England Journal of Medicine 1993 |
Trial status
In clinical use since 1922. Landmark outcome trials include DCCT and UKPDS.
Reported safety signals
- Hypoglycaemia is the dominant risk and can cause seizure, coma and death within hours. This is not a theoretical concern — it is the leading cause of insulin-related harm.
- Never use insulin without glucose monitoring and a source of fast-acting carbohydrate immediately available.
- Non-medical use for its anabolic effect has caused documented deaths in bodybuilding. There is no dose that makes this safe outside medical supervision.
- Hypokalaemia can accompany rapid glucose lowering, particularly with intravenous dosing.
Common questions
Why is insulin listed in a peptide database?
It is a peptide hormone, and it is the reference point for the entire field — nearly every metabolic peptide here is understood in relation to it. It is included as reference material, with the explicit note that non-medical use is exceptionally dangerous.
Primary sources
- 01
The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
- 02
Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33)
- 03
Insulin analogues: have they changed insulin treatment and improved glycaemic control?
Medical disclaimer
This page is for informational and research purposes only. Nothing here constitutes medical advice. The compounds discussed are research chemicals. Consult a qualified clinician before starting any protocol.
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